Research and analysis
Underwater noise source literature review references and value table for natural Sources (MMO 1097)
Updated 17 December 2015
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| Type | Source | Sub-Type | Source Level Value | Source Level Units | Bandwith/Frequency Range (Hz) | Major Amplitude/Main Energy/Peak Frequency (Hz) | Additional Information | Data Limitations/Constraints | Confidence (H/M/L) | Original reference | Cited in |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Natural | Ambient | Not set | 60 | dB re 1µPa m | Not set | <100 | Cook Inlet, Alaska | Not peer-reviewed | M | Dredging Operations and Environmental Research (DOER) (2001). Characterization of underwater sounds produced by bucket dredging operations. ERDC TN-DOER-E14 August 2001 | Not set |
| Natural | Ambient | Not set | 100-140 | dB re 1µPa | 1,000-120,000 | Not set | Hastings Shingle Bank | Not peer-reviewed | M | Parvin, S.J., Nedwell, J.R., Kynoch, J., Lovell, J. and Brooker, A.G. 2008. Assessment of underwater noise from dredging operations on the Hastings Shingle Bank. Subacoustech Report No. 758R0137 | Not set |
| Natural | Ambient | Not set | 101-141 | dB re 1µPa (SPL) | 1-120,000 | Not set | Southampton Water Typical SPLs were 120-130dB re 1µPa | Not peer-reviewed | M | J R Nedwell, S J Parvin, A G Brooker and D R Lambert, 2008. Modelling and measurement of underwater noise associated with the proposed Port of Southampton capital dredge and redevelopment of berths 201/202 and assessment of the disturbance to salmon. Subacoustech Report No. 805R0444 | Not set |
| Natural | Ambient | Not set | 92-105 | dB re 1µPa (SPL) | Not set | Not set | Weymouth Bay Sea state 1 to 2 No vessels within 2,000m | Not peer-reviewed | M | Nedwell, J.R., B. Edwards. B. 2004. A review of measurements of underwater man-made noise carried out by Subacoustech Ltd, 1993 - 2003. Subacoustech Report Ref: 534R0109 | Not set |
| Natural | Ambient | Not set | 70-100 | dB re 1µPa m | Not set | Not set | Offshore central California Sea state 3-5 | No documented frequency information Not peer-reviewed | L | Richardson, WJ, Greene, CR, Malme, CI, Thompson, DH (1991) Effects of noise on marine mammals. OCS Study MMS90-0093. LGL Rep. TA834-1. Report from LGL Ecol. Res. Assoc., Inc., Bran, Texas, for US Minerals Management Service, Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Region, Herndon, VA. NTIS PB91-168914. 462pp; McCauley, RD (1994) Seismic surveys. PP19-121 in JM Swan, JM Neff, Young PC, Environmental Implications of Offshore Oil and Gas Development in Australia - The Findings of an Independent Scientific Review. Australian Petroleum Exploration Association, Canberra, Australia; Advanced Research Projects Agency (1995) Final Environmental Impact Statement/ Environmental Impact Report for the California Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate Project and its Associated Marine Mammal Research Program. Advanced Research Projects Agency, Arlington, VA. | Battele, 2004. Pinniped Assessment for the Cape Wind Project. Nantucket Sound. Prepared for the US Army Corps of Engineers. |
| Natural | Bottlenose dolphin | Clicks | 226 | dB re 1µPa m | Not set | 40,000-140,000 | Not set | Not peer-reviewed These figures are indicative only and should not be taken as absolute values for specific sources | M | Richards, SD, Harland, EJ, Jones SAS (2007) Underwater Noise Study Supporting Scottish Executive Strategic Environmental Assessment for Marine Renewables. QINETIQ/06/02215/2 January 2009 | Not set |
| Natural | Bottlenose dolphin | Clicks | 218-228 | dB re 1µPa m | Not set | 110,000-130,000 | Not set | Not set | H | Au, W.W.L., Floyd, R.W., Penner, R.H. and Murchison, A.E. 1974. Measurements of echolocation signals of the Atlantic bottle-nosed dolphin, Tursiops truncatus Montagu, in open waters. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 56: 1280-1290; Au, W.W.L. 1993. The sonar of dolphins. Springer-Verlag, New York. | Evans, PGH (2003) Shipping as a possible source of disturbance to cetaceans in the ASCOBANS region. ASCOBANS 4th Meeting of the Parties Document MOP4/Doc. 17(S) Rev.1 Esbjerg, Denmark, 19-22 August 2003 Dist.: 1 August 2003 |
| Natural | Bottlenose dolphin | Clicks | 226 | dB re 1µPa m | 40,000-140,000 | Not set | Not set | Not peer-reviewed | M | Harland, E.J., Jones, S.A.S, Clarke, T (2005) SEA 6 Technical report: Underwater ambient noise. QINETIQ/S&E/MAC/CR050575 | Not set |
| Natural | Bottlenose dolphin | Whistles | 125-173 | dB re 1µPa m | 4,000-20,000 | 3,500-14,500 | Not set | Not set | H | Caldwell, M.C. and Caldwell, D.K. 1967. Intraspecific transfer of information via pulsed sound in captive odontocete cetaceans. Pp. 879-937. In: Animal Sonar Systems: Biology and Bionics II. (ed. R.-G. Busnel). Laboratoire de Physiologie Acoustique, Jouy-en-Josas, France; Evans, W.E. and Prescott, J.H. 1962. Observations of the sound production capabilities of the bottlenose porpoise. A study of whistles and clicks. Zoologica, 47: 121-128. | Evans, PGH (2003) Shipping as a possible source of disturbance to cetaceans in the ASCOBANS region. ASCOBANS 4th Meeting of the Parties Document MOP4/Doc. 17(S) Rev.1 Esbjerg, Denmark, 19-22 August 2003 Dist.: 1 August 2003 |
| Natural | Fish | Swimbladder sounds | 140 | dB re 1µPa m | Not set | 50-3,000 | Not set | Not peer-reviewed | M | Richardson, WJ, Greene, CR, Malme, CI, Thompson, DH (1991) Effects of noise on marine mammals. OCS Study MMS90-0093. LGL Rep. TA834-1. Report from LGL Ecol. Res. Assoc., Inc., Bran, Texas, for US Minerals Management Service, Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Region, Herndon, VA. NTIS PB91-168914. 462pp; McCauley, RD (1994) Seismic surveys. PP19-121 in JM Swan, JM Neff, Young PC, Environmental Implications of Offshore Oil and Gas Development in Australia - The Findings of an Independent Scientific Review. Australian Petroleum Exploration Association, Canberra, Australia; Advanced Research Projects Agency (1995) Final Environmental Impact Statement/ Environmental Impact Report for the California Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate Project and its Associated Marine Mammal Research Program. Advanced Research Projects Agency, Arlington, VA. | Battele, 2004. Pinniped Assessment for the Cape Wind Project. Nantucket Sound. Prepared for the US Army Corps of Engineers. |
| Natural | Harbour porpoise | Clicks | 175 | dB re 1µPa m | 4,000-14,000 | Not set | Not set | Not peer-reviewed These figures are indicative only and should not be taken as absolute values for specific sources | M | Richards, SD, Harland, EJ, Jones SAS (2007) Underwater Noise Study Supporting Scottish Executive Strategic Environmental Assessment for Marine Renewables. QINETIQ/06/02215/2 January 2007 | Not set |
| Natural | Harbour porpoise | Clicks | 205 | dB re 1µPa m (pk-pk) | 110,000-160,000 | 130,000-140,000 | Duration 100µs Directional Clicks | Not set | H | Villadsgaard A, Wahlberg M, Tougaard J (2007) – Echolocation signals of wild harbour porpoises, Phocoena phocoena. The Journal of Experimental Biology 210:56-64 | Central Dredging Association (CEDA) (2011) Underwater Sound in Relation to Dredging. CEDA Position Paper - 1 November 2011 |
| Natural | Harbour porpoise | Clicks | 135-177 | dB re 1µPa m | Not set | 110,000-150,000 | Not set | Not set | H | Busnel, R.-G., Dziedzic, A. and Anderson, S. 1965. Rôle de l’impédance d’une cible dans le seuil de sa détection par le système sonar du Marsouin P. phocoena. Compte Rendus des Séances de la Société de Biologie, 159: 69-74; Møhl, B. and Andersen, S. 1973. Echolocation: High-frequency component in the click of the harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena L.). Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 57: 1368-1372; Kamminga, C. and Wiersma, H. 1981. Investigations on cetacean sonar II. Acoustical similarities and differences in odontocete signals. Aquatic Mammals, 82: 41-62; Akamatsu, T., Hatakeyama, Y., Kojima, T. and Soeda, H. 1994. Echo-location rates of two harbor porpoises Phocoena phocoena. Marine Mammal Science, 10: 401-411. | Evans, PGH (2003) Shipping as a possible source of disturbance to cetaceans in the ASCOBANS region. ASCOBANS 4th Meeting of the Parties Document MOP4/Doc. 17(S) Rev.1 Esbjerg, Denmark, 19-22 August 2003 Dist.: 1 August 2003 |
| Natural | Harbour porpoise | Clicks | 170 | dB re 1µPa m | 40,000-140,000 | Not set | Not set | Not peer-reviewed | M | Harland, E.J., Jones, S.A.S, Clarke, T (2005) SEA 6 Technical report: Underwater ambient noise. QINETIQ/S&E/MAC/CR050575 | Not set |
| Natural | Invertebrates | Snapping shrimp | 183-189 | dB re 1µPa m (pk-pk) | 2,000-200,000 | 2,000-5,000 | Duration milliseconds Omnidirectional | Not set | H | Au WWL, Banks K (1998) – The acoustics of the snapping shrimp Synalpheus parneomeris in Kaneohe Bay. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 103:41-47 | Central Dredging Association (CEDA) (2011) Underwater Sound in Relation to Dredging. CEDA Position Paper - 1 November 2011 |
| Natural | Invertebrates | Snapping shrimp | 200 | dB re 1µPa m | 1,000-100,000 | 7000 | Occur at rates up to 2-3 per second | Not peer-reviewed | M | Harland, E.J., Jones, S.A.S, Clarke, T (2005) SEA 6 Technical report: Underwater ambient noise. QINETIQ/S&E/MAC/CR050575 | Not set |
| Natural | Weather | Lightning strike on water surface | 250 | dB re 1µPa m | Not set | Not set | Not set | Not peer-reviewed No documented frequency information | L | Richardson, WJ, Greene, CR, Malme, CI, Thompson, DH (1991) Effects of noise on marine mammals. OCS Study MMS90-0093. LGL Rep. TA834-1. Report from LGL Ecol. Res. Assoc., Inc., Bran, Texas, for US Minerals Management Service, Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Region, Herndon, VA. NTIS PB91-168914. 462pp; McCauley, RD (1994) Seismic surveys. PP19-121 in JM Swan, JM Neff, Young PC, Environmental Implications of Offshore Oil and Gas Development in Australia - The Findings of an Independent Scientific Review. Australian Petroleum Exploration Association, Canberra, Australia; Advanced Research Projects Agency (1995) Final Environmental Impact Statement/ Environmental Impact Report for the California Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate Project and its Associated Marine Mammal Research Program. Advanced Research Projects Agency, Arlington, VA. | Battele, 2004. Pinniped Assessment for the Cape Wind Project. Nantucket Sound. Prepared for the US Army Corps of Engineers. |
| Natural | Weather | Rain | 105 | dB re 1µPa | 100-6,300 | 10000 | Rainfall rate 10cm/hr | Not peer-reviewed | M | Malme, C.I., Miles, P.R., Miller, G.W., Richardson, W.J., Roseneau, D.G., Thomson, D.H. and Greene, C.R. 1989. Analysis and ranking of the acoustic disturbance potential of petroleum industry activities and other sources of noise in the environment of marine mammals in Alaska. Final Report No. 6945 to the US Minerals Management Service, Anchorage, AK. BBN Systems and Technologies Corp. [Available from http://www.mms.gov]. | Not set |
| Natural | Weather | Rain | 81 | dB re 1µPa | 100-6,300 | 10000 | Rainfall rate 0.25cm/hr | Not peer-reviewed | M | Malme, C.I., Miles, P.R., Miller, G.W., Richardson, W.J., Roseneau, D.G., Thomson, D.H. and Greene, C.R. 1989. Analysis and ranking of the acoustic disturbance potential of petroleum industry activities and other sources of noise in the environment of marine mammals in Alaska. Final Report No. 6945 to the US Minerals Management Service, Anchorage, AK. BBN Systems and Technologies Corp. [Available from http://www.mms.gov]. | Not set |
| Natural | Weather | Rain storm | 80 | dB re 1µPa m | Not set | Not set | Heavy rain shower Flat frequency spectrum | Not peer-reviewed No documented frequency information | L | Richardson, WJ, Greene, CR, Malme, CI, Thompson, DH (1991) Effects of noise on marine mammals. OCS Study MMS90-0093. LGL Rep. TA834-1. Report from LGL Ecol. Res. Assoc., Inc., Bran, Texas, for US Minerals Management Service, Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Region, Herndon, VA. NTIS PB91-168914. 462pp; McCauley, RD (1994) Seismic surveys. PP19-121 in JM Swan, JM Neff, Young PC, Environmental Implications of Offshore Oil and Gas Development in Australia - The Findings of an Independent Scientific Review. Australian Petroleum Exploration Association, Canberra, Australia; Advanced Research Projects Agency (1995) Final Environmental Impact Statement/ Environmental Impact Report for the California Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate Project and its Associated Marine Mammal Research Program. Advanced Research Projects Agency, Arlington, VA. | Battele, 2004. Pinniped Assessment for the Cape Wind Project. Nantucket Sound. Prepared for the US Army Corps of Engineers. |
| Natural | Weather | Wind | 95 | dB re 1µPa | 100-6,300 | 1000 | Shallow open water Wind speed 34-40 knots | Not peer-reviewed | M | Malme, C.I., Miles, P.R., Miller, G.W., Richardson, W.J., Roseneau, D.G., Thomson, D.H. and Greene, C.R. 1989. Analysis and ranking of the acoustic disturbance potential of petroleum industry activities and other sources of noise in the environment of marine mammals in Alaska. Final Report No. 6945 to the US Minerals Management Service, Anchorage, AK. BBN Systems and Technologies Corp. [Available from http://www.mms.gov]. | Not set |
| Natural | Weather | Wind | 82 | dB re 1µPa | 100-6,300 | 1000 | Shallow open water Wind speed 7-10 knots | Not peer-reviewed | M | Malme, C.I., Miles, P.R., Miller, G.W., Richardson, W.J., Roseneau, D.G., Thomson, D.H. and Greene, C.R. 1989. Analysis and ranking of the acoustic disturbance potential of petroleum industry activities and other sources of noise in the environment of marine mammals in Alaska. Final Report No. 6945 to the US Minerals Management Service, Anchorage, AK. BBN Systems and Technologies Corp. [Available from http://www.mms.gov]. | Not set |
| Natural | Weather | Wind | 66 | dB re 1µPa m | Not set | Not set | Force 3 wind over water | Not peer-reviewed No documented frequency information | L | Richardson, WJ, Greene, CR, Malme, CI, Thompson, DH (1991) Effects of noise on marine mammals. OCS Study MMS90-0093. LGL Rep. TA834-1. Report from LGL Ecol. Res. Assoc., Inc., Bran, Texas, for US Minerals Management Service, Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Region, Herndon, VA. NTIS PB91-168914. 462pp; McCauley, RD (1994) Seismic surveys. PP19-121 in JM Swan, JM Neff, Young PC, Environmental Implications of Offshore Oil and Gas Development in Australia - The Findings of an Independent Scientific Review. Australian Petroleum Exploration Association, Canberra, Australia; Advanced Research Projects Agency (1995) Final Environmental Impact Statement/ Environmental Impact Report for the California Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate Project and its Associated Marine Mammal Research Program. Advanced Research Projects Agency, Arlington, VA. | Battele, 2004. Pinniped Assessment for the Cape Wind Project. Nantucket Sound. Prepared for the US Army Corps of Engineers. |